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10 Greatest Dancers of the Twentieth CenturyThe art of dance is a unique form of expression, employing a universal body language that everyone understands. From ballet to contemporary, from hip-hop to salsa, and from oriental to flamenco, dance is certainly enjoying something of a renaissance lately. But when it comes to individual dancers, who has the best moves? The greatest poise, power, and poignancy? This list showcases ten of the greatest dancers of the twentieth century—selected for their fame, popularity, and influence around the globe. 10 Vaslav Nijinsky
Vaslav Nijinsky was one of the most talented male ballet dancers in history; perhaps even the greatest. Unfortunately, there isn't any clear footage of his incredible talent in motion, which is the main reason he ranks so low in this list. Nijinsky was well-known for his amazing ability to defy gravity with his magnificent leaps, and also for his ability of intense characterization. He is also remembered for dancing en pointe, a skill not commonly seen by male dancers. Nijinsky was paired in leading roles with legendary ballerina Anna Pavlova. He was then partnered with Tamara Karsavina, a founder of London's Royal Academy of Dancing. He and Karsavina have been referred to as the "most exemplary artists of the time." Nijinsky retired from the stage in 1919, at the relatively young age of twenty-nine. His retirement was believed to be brought on by a nervous breakdown, and he was also diagnosed with schizophrenia. Nijinsky spent the last years of his life in psychiatric hospitals and asylums. He danced in public for the very last time during the final days of World War Two, impressing a group of Russian soldiers with his complex dancing abilities. Nijinsky died in London on April 8, 1950. 9 Martha Graham
Martha Graham is considered to be the mother of modern dance. She created the only fully-codified modern dance technique, choreographed more than one hundred and fifty works during her lifetime, and has had a remarkable impact on the entire field of modern dance. Her technique's deviation from classical ballet, and its use of specific body movements such as the contraction, release, and spiral, has exerted a profound influence on the dancing world. Graham even went so far as to create a movement "language" based upon the expressive capacity of the human body. She danced and choreographed for over seventy years, and during that time was the first dancer to perform at the White House; the first dancer to travel overseas as a cultural ambassador; and the first dancer to receive the highest civilian award, the Medal of Freedom. As the mother of modern dance, she will be immortalized for her intensely emotional performances, her unique choreography, and especially for her homegrown technique. 8 Josephine Baker
Although Josephine Baker is primarily associated with the Jazz Age, her influence is still alive and kicking, as it were, almost one hundred and ten years after her birth. Many decades before Madonna, Beyonce, Janet Jackson, Britney Spears and Jennifer Lopez, there was Josephine Baker; one the world's first celebrities of African origin. Josephine traveled to Paris in 1925 to appear in La Revue Nègre. She made quite an impression on French audiences, with her exotic charm and her talents forming a perfect combination. She performed in the Folies Bergère the following year—and this was what really made her career. She appeared wearing a skirt made of bananas, and wowed the crowds with her style of dancing. She later added singing to her act, and remained popular in France for many years to come. Josephine Baker returned the affection of the French people, becoming a French citizen herself in 1937. In France, she did not feel the same level of racial prejudice that was prevalent in the United States at the time. Near the end of her life, Josephine Baker hoped to create a "world village" at her estate in France, but these plans collapsed under financial troubles. To raise funds, she returned to the stage. This comeback involved a short but triumphant run on Broadway in the 1970s; and in 1975, she opened a retrospective show in Paris. She died on that same year of a brain hemorrhage, a week after the show opened. 7 Gene Kelly
Gene Kelly was one of the biggest stars and greatest innovators during Hollywood's golden age of musicals. Kelly considered his own style to be a hybrid of various approaches to dance, including modern, ballet, and tap. Kelly brought dance to theaters, utilizing every inch of his set, every possible surface, every sweeping camera angle to break out of the two-dimensional limitation of film. And by doing this, he changed the way directors thought about the camera; it became a fluid tool, as much a dancer itself as the things it was documenting. Kelly's legacy permeates the music video industry. The photographer Mike Salisbury photographed Michael Jackson for the cover of "Off the Wall" in the "Gene Kelly white sox and loafers"—a signature look for the movie star, which would soon become the singer's own recognizable brand. Paula Abdul, originally known primarily for her dancing and choreography, referenced Kelly's famous dance with Jerry the Mouse in her kitschy video for "Opposites Attract," which includes a final tap-dance breakdown. Usher was yet another top-selling artist to pay explicit tribute to Kelly. There will never be another like Kelly; his work continues to resonate with generation after generation of American dancers. 6 Sylvie Guillem
At forty-eight, Sylvie Guillem continues to defy the laws of ballet—and of gravity. Guillem has changed the face of ballet with her extraordinary gifts, which she has always used with intelligence, integrity and sensitivity. Her natural curiosity and courage has led her down daring paths, beyond the usual boundaries of classical ballet. Instead of spending her entire career in "safe" productions, she has made bold choices, equally capable of performing at the Paris opera house as "Raymonda", or as part of the groundbreaking "In The Middle Somewhat Elevated" by Forsythe. Almost no other dancer has such scope, and it is no wonder that she has become the model for most dancers around the world. Like Maria Callas in the opera world, Guillem has re-shaped the popular image of the ballerina. 5 Michael Jackson
Michael Jackson was basically the man who made music videos a trend—and without a doubt the one who made dancing an essential element of modern pop music. Jackson's moves have now become standard vocabulary in the pop and hip-hop routines. Most modern pop icons—such as Justin Bieber, Usher, and Justin Timberlake—admit that they have been heavily influenced by Michael Jackson's style. His contributions to dance were original and extraordinary. Jackson was an innovator who was primarily self-taught, designing new dance moves on his gifted frame without the often-limiting effects of formal training. His natural grace, flexibility, and astonishing rhythm contributed to the creation of the "Jackson style." His collaborators called him "the sponge," a nickname which referred to his knack for soaking up ideas and techniques wherever he found them. Jackson's chief inspirations were James Brown, Marcel Marceau, Gene Kelly, and—perhaps surprisingly to many people—various classical ballet dancers. Unbeknownst to many of his fans, he had previously tried to "pirouette like Baryshnikov" and "tap like Fred Astaire," and had failed miserably. His dedication to his own unique style, however, gave him the glory he was looking for—and today he stands alongside the other giants of popular music, such as Elvis and The Beatles, as one of the greatest pop icons of all time. 4 Joaquín Cortés
Joaquín Cortés is the youngest entry on this list—and even though he's still in the process of building his legacy, he's one of the very few dancers in history who has managed to become a phenomenal sex symbol, loved by men and women alike. Elle Macpherson described him as "sex on legs"; Madonna and Jennifer Lopez publicly claimed to adore him; while Naomi Campbell and Mira Sorvino are among the women whose hearts he has (allegedly) broken. It's safe to say that Cortés is not just one of the greatest Flamenco dancers alive, but also the one who cemented the Flamenco's place in popular culture. His male fans include Tarantino, Armani, Bertolucci, Al Pacino, Antonio Banderas, and Sting. Many of his fans refer to him as a Flamenco God—or simply a Sex God—and when you get the chance to watch one of his shows, you'll be able to see why. But at the age of forty-four, Cortés remains single, stating that "Dancing is my wife, my only woman." 3 Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers
Astaire and Rogers were certainly a formidable pair of dancers. It's said that "He gave her class, and she gave him sex appeal." They made dancing much more appealing to the masses during rather prudish times. This perhaps owed something to the acting involved in the performance, as Rogers made dancing with Astaire look like the most thrilling experience in the world. The timing was ideal, too; during the Depression Era, many Americans were struggling to make ends meet—and these two dancers offered many people a way to escape from reality for a while, and to have some fun. 2 Mikhail Baryshnikov
Mikhail Baryshnikov is one of the greatest ballet dancers of all time; many critics consider him to be the greatest. Born in Latvia, Baryshnikov studied ballet at the Vaganova School in St. Petersburg (then known as Leningrad) before joining the Kirov Ballet in 1967. Since then, he has held the lead role in dozens of ballets. He played a key role in making ballet part of popular culture back in the late 1970s and early '80s, and he was the face of the art form for more than two decades. Baryshnikov is probably the most influential dancer of our time. 1 Rudolf Nureyev
Baryshnikov captured the hearts of critics and fellow-dancers, but Rudolf Nureyev was the one who managed to enthrall millions of ordinary people around the world. Born in Russia, he became a soloist for the Kirov Ballet at the age of twenty. In 1961, when his life offstage made him the subject of scrutiny from Russian authorities, he sought political asylum in Paris and then toured with the Grand Ballet du Marquis de Cuevas. In the 1970s, he broke into film. Most critics claim that technically he wasn't as good as Baryshnikov, but Nureyev still managed to charm the crowds with his amazing charisma and his emotional performances. Nureyev and Fonteyn's "Romeo and Juliet" remains to this day one of the most powerful and emotional performances by a dancing duo in the history of ballet. Unfortunately, Nureyev was one of the early victims of HIV, and died from AIDS in 1993. Twenty years on, we can still witness the incredible legacy he left behind him. + Donnie Burns
Donnie Burns is a Scottish professional ballroom dancer who specializes in Latin dance. He and former dance partner Gaynor Fairweather were World Professional Latin champions a record sixteen times. He's the current president of the World Dance Council and also appeared on the twelfth season of Dancing with the Stars. He's considered the greatest ballroom dancer of all time, and his championship performances with his partner are now considered to be classics. But things weren't always so great for Burns. During an interview with the Daily Sun, he admitted: "I never thought a wee boy from Hamilton would ever experience a fraction of what I've gone through in life. I was relentlessly teased at school and I used to get into fights because I wanted to prove I wasn't a "Dancing Queen." We are quite sure that he wouldn't mind the epithet commonly applied to him today; Donnie Burns is now widely thought of as the "Dancing King." Theodoros II is a collector of experiences and a law graduate. He loves History, Sci-Fi culture, European politics, and exploring the worlds of hidden knowledge. His ideal trip in an alternative world would be to the lost city of Atlantis. His biggest passions include Writing, Photography and Music. You can view his photostream here. The post 10 Greatest Dancers of the Twentieth Century appeared first on Listverse. |
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10 Wars Fought In The USA
Battles, rebellions, skirmishes, disputes, and tiffs have occurred in America right up to the 20th century. Here are 10 historic conflicts that took place within the land borders of the United States of America and didn't happen during the Revolutionary or Civil Wars. For the purposes of this list, we've also excluded the American-Indian Wars.
The Lone Star State suffered a few growing pains in its earlier days, not helped by the near constant threat of invasion from neighboring Mexico. In 1842, the capital of the Republic of Texas was Austin. After receiving a demand for surrender from a Mexican general backed by an army, Texas president Sam Houston and the state Congress decided Austin might be in danger and ordered the seat of government—and its accompanying archive of official public documents and records—moved to the city of Houston.
The citizens of Austin weren't pleased. Fearing the president's namesake city would become the new state capital, they formed a vigilante committee and swore armed resistance. The first attempt failed when the man appointed by the president to accompany the archive on its move was refused horses and wagons by the angry residents. The second attempt ended in humiliation when contemptuous citizens flouted the president's authority, shaved the manes and tails of his messengers' horses, and refused to let the men carry out their duty. At the end of 1842, a frustrated President Houston was forced to send a company of thirty Texas Rangers, with orders not to provoke bloodshed, to take the government archive from Austin.
The Rangers entered the town on the morning of December 29th and began quietly loading the archive into wagons, unnoticed by the citizens—except one. Upon witnessing the soldiers' activities, Angelina Belle Peyton Eberly, who ran the local boarding house, hurried to a six-pound cannon kept loaded with grape shot in case of Indian attack, and set off the charge (fortunately, no one was injured). By the time the vigilante committee members assembled, the Rangers raced out of town, taking the precious archive with them.
Undaunted, the leader of the vigilantes, Captain Mark Lewis, commandeered a cannon from the nearby arsenal and took off after the Rangers with a couple of dozen furious citizens right behind him. They caught up to the company of Rangers the next day at Kenny Fort and at cannon-point, forced them to hand over the archive, which was returned to Austin.
At that point, President Sam Houston gave up, the government archive remained in Austin, and the Archive War ended with only a few shots fired and no one hurt.
Not to be confused with the Red River War in 1874 (U.S. Army vs. Southern Plains Indians). The Red River Bridge War in 1931 began with, unsurprisingly, a bridge spanning the Red River between Denison, Texas and Durant, Oklahoma.
This was a free bridge built jointly by Texas and Oklahoma, much to the annoyance of a nearby older toll bridge also spanning the Red River, now made redundant. In July 1931, the toll bridge company filed for and received a court ordered injunction against the Texas Highway Commission, citing an alleged, unfulfilled agreement to purchase the toll bridge and pay out the company's contract. The injunction prevented the bridge's opening. Governor Sterling ordered barricades erected on the Texas side.
However, neither the injunction nor telegrams from Sterling prevented Oklahoma Governor Murray from issuing an executive order to open the new free bridge by asserting his state's claim to ownership of the land on both sides of the river. He sent workers to destroy the Texas barricades, causing Sterling to respond by sending a couple of Texas Rangers to rebuild the barricades. The situation continued to escalate when Murray ordered crews to block the Oklahoma side of the toll bridge, and traffic flow across the Red River came to a halt. Finally, the Texas legislature granted the toll bridge company the right to sue the state, the injunction was withdrawn, and the free bridge opened. But that isn't the end of the story.
The toll bridge company went to federal court to prevent Murray from continuing to block their bridge. The Oklahoma governor's response? Declare martial law and post a National Guard Unit at the sites of both bridges on both sides, prompting Texans to fear an invasion. Murray led guardsmen across the toll bridge while brandishing an antique revolver, and ordered the toll booth torn down and burned. The two Texas Rangers inside fled.
In August, the guardsmen were withdrawn and the Red River Bridge War ended.
A dispute took place over a piece of land called the "Toledo Strip"—where the city of Toledo, Ohio would later be located—which in 1835, gave U.S. President Andrew Jackson a headache by touching off the border skirmish called the Toledo War.
The situation was a tad complicated and boils down to: the original surveyors of the land in question made a mistake and assigned it to Ohio when that state's border was created. In 1835, another survey corrected the error and set the land within the border of Michigan (not yet a state but a territory). However, this property became hotly contested because of its location at the mouth of the Maumee River. Canals were planned to connect to the Mississippi River, then a vital commercial artery. A city in that location had great potential for wealth.
Hating the prospect of losing a future major trade center, the Ohio legislature called for another survey. This time, the borders were adjusted to no one's satisfaction.
Matters boiled up again when Michigan applied to the US government to become a state. Ohio Congressmen managed to block the application and wouldn't budge unless Michigan agreed to revert back to the old boundary line and give up the Toledo Strip. Adding insult to injury, Ohio governor Lucas refused to negotiate, created a county from the disputed land (named after himself), and appointed a judge and sheriff. Michigan governor Stevens promptly mobilized troops and marched to Ohio.
During the brief Toledo War, both states were involved more in bluffing and posturing than actual fighting. The Michigan militia arrested a few Ohio surveyors and officials they caught on the border. They also passed a slightly larger military budget than Ohio in a blatant "mine's bigger than yours" display. Ohio sent militia to guard their interests, though the only casualty was a Michigan sheriff stabbed to death by an Ohio man in a bar brawl, and the only shots fired were over the heads of the "enemy."
In 1836, President Jackson ended the Toledo War by proposing to give the Toledo Strip to Ohio and assign a nice chunk of resource rich land to Michigan in compensation. If Michigan rejected the compromise, he would refuse to sign the bill giving the territory its coveted statehood. Needless to say, Michigan took the deal.
In 1841 in the smallest U.S. state, Rhode Island, one man and his supporters instituted insurrection against what they considered unfair voting practices and the disenfranchisement of many of the states' residents. Their cause became known as the Dorr Rebellion.
Immigration caused an increase in Rhode Island's population as well as a workforce for the burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Due to the original charter, only property owners had the right to vote, and at the time, more than half the state's male residents didn't qualify. Previous attempts to change the qualification through official government channels failed. Finally in 1841, Thomas Dorr and like-minded citizens decided if state legislators couldn't be bothered, they'd hold a People's Convention and effect change themselves.
The Dorrites drafted and ratified a People's Constitution which reformed the voting qualifications, giving all white male residents the franchise. They also "elected" Dorr as governor. Dorr and his supporters were opposed by state legislators including the officially elected Governor King, who used intimidation and force against the popular rebellion.
Backed by many militia members, Dorr attempted to lead an attack on the arsenal in Provincetown in 1842, but the attack failed. He and his followers retreated to regroup, only to find their retreat cut off by government forces. The rebellion fell apart and Dorr fled the state. On his later return to Rhode Island, he was arrested, convicted, and sentenced to life in solitary confinement at hard labor, but he was pardoned and released in 1845.
The Rhode Island legislature did eventually reform the state Constitution, giving the vote to white male residents who owned property or could pay a $1 poll tax.
As a consequence of the Yazoo Land Fraud Scandal of 1795, in 1802 Congress passed a rather vaguely worded law granting certain tracts of land to Georgia which appeared to include the "Orphan Strip"—a small, isolated, and unwanted region surrounded by North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Nobody wanted to govern the wilderness, yet this troublesome bit of real estate would spark a conflict ending in tragedy.
The area had a checkered history. First inhabited by the Cherokee, the Orphan Strip was claimed by South Carolina, who later ceded it to the US government, who in turn passed it back to the Cherokee. The Cherokee still didn't want it, so tribal leaders handed it over to Washington D.C. a second time. The Orphan Strip became public domain. Despite its isolation and popularity with outlaws and fugitives, some settlers from North and South Carolina decided to make the region their home.
The trouble began in 1803, when Georgia annexed the Orphan Strip and named it Walton County. The state of North Carolina didn't care, but the 800 some-odd settlers did. Their land grants had been issued by North Carolina and in some cases, South Carolina, so they refused to pay taxes to Georgia in 1804. Walton County tax officials responded by ramping up the pressure with intimidation and attempts to dispossess. Tensions peaked when a Georgian official, Sam McAdams, killed North Carolina constable, John Hafner.
Governor Turner of North Carolina sent his state's militia marching into Walton County to arrest the men responsible for Hafner's murder. Ten Walton officials were captured and sent to North Carolina for trial. They escaped jail and went on the lam.
Disputes between North Carolina and Georgia over the land continued. Finally in 1811, a new survey put Walton County within North Carolina's border, and Georgia accepted the findings … until 1971, when a state commission reported Georgia still had a legal claim to the region. The governor of North Carolina called out the militia to defend the border. Fortunately, both sides kept their heads this time and the matter was resolved peacefully.
Also known as the "Lumberjack War" or the "Pork and Beans War," the Aroostook War was a border dispute between Maine and Canada (and the US and Great Britain) in 1838. While no one died, the conflict did mange to achieve its own theme song.
At the time of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, the border between what would become Maine and New Brunswick, Canada (British territory) was vaguely set at the St. John's River. Since the region on both sides of the boundary line was covered in timber, Acadian loggers and trappers quickly settled there, ignoring the border. When Maine applied for statehood in 1820, legislators were surprised to find French-Canadian settlers on their side of the river. They gave land grants in the nearby Aroostook River valley to Americans, who soon began disputing with their Acadian neighbors.
King William I of the Netherlands was asked to arbitrate, but Maine rejected his compromise in 1831. The conflict heated up in 1837 when officials from Maine and New Brunswick began making arrests for trespassing in the Aroostook area. Canada accused Maine of timber theft and feared an invasion. The arrival of British forces from Quebec triggered Maine legislators to send a force of 200 militiamen to oppose them.
The US Congress dispatched 10,000 volunteer troops to enforce peace while negotiations with Britain's representative went on—and if hostilities broke out, to defend the border by force. To everyone's relief, no fighting occurred and no one was killed—though folklore speaks of a Canadian pig or possibly a wandering cow shot by mistake.
In March 1839, a settlement was finally reached, though a final decision on the border between Maine and Canada wouldn't be achieved until 1842.
Following World War II in 1946, violence erupted when returning American soldiers discovered their Tennessee county had been taken over by political corruption. Their plan to take it back involved bullets—lots of bullets—and dynamite.
Why Athens in McMinn County, Tennessee became a battleground was due to Paul Cantrell, a Democrat running for sheriff in the 1936 election. He won over his Republican opponent, although the victory was tainted by rumors of fraud. Cantrell was a corrupt sheriff—for example, since state law allowed his office to collect fees for each person booked, jailed, and released, deputies boarded buses passing through the city and arrested passengers on bogus charges of drunkenness, forcing them to pay fines. Prostitution, gambling, and kickbacks from illegal drinking establishments were commonplace.
The tide began to turn in 1945 when GIs returning to Athens were subjected to arrest on the flimsiest excuses and heavily fined. When the fed up soldiers attempted to support their choice for sheriff against Pat Mansfield (by then, Cantrell had been elected to the state Senate and backed Mansfield's bid), matters boiled over into direct conflict on Election Day 1946.
Mansfield hired several hundred armed "deputies" to patrol the voting precincts in Athens—and no doubt to assist in the typical ballot stuffing and voter intimidation. The volatile situation escalated when Walter Ellis, an ex-GI and volunteer poll watcher, was arrested by Mansfield's deputies and held without charge. A black resident, Tom Gillespie, was refused the right to vote, beaten, and shot. More GIs were arrested and threatened with violence. By the end of the day, the former soldiers had enough.
They broke into the town armory for weapons and besieged the jail, where Mansfield and his deputies had taken the ballet boxes. Battle continued sporadically throughout the night, resulting in wounded on both sides. When the GIs ran out of bullets around dawn, they began throwing dynamite. The deputies inside the jail surrendered.
The highly publicized Battle of Athens not only ousted corruption from one county in Tennessee, the lesson learned would ultimately lead to great reforms in Southern politics.
A border dispute in 1839 between Missouri and Iowa culminated in the Honey War—a bloodless if slightly rowdy conflict whose mark can still be seen in the landscape today.
The border between Iowa and Missouri had originally been drawn in 1816 by J.C. Sullivan, a surveyor, creating the "Sullivan Line." However, less than a decade later, the exact whereabouts of the boundary line were in question. The matter didn't cause trouble until 1838, when Missouri legislators ordered a new survey done. The result, adopted by the Missouri government, shifted the border north into Iowa.
Settlers in the annexed area considered themselves Iowans, so were understandably disconcerted when Missouri officials attempted to collect taxes from them. Their refusal caused several valuable bee trees—a source of honey—to be cut down and taken as partial payment, a definite crime in the citizen's eyes. Next time, the tax agents threatened, they'd come in force. Incensed Iowans chased them away and contacted Iowa Governor Lucas.
Expecting a fight, Missouri mustered a militia force of 600 men, who marched to the disputed area. Iowa lacked a militia, but eventually close to 1,200 volunteers armed with pitchforks showed up to defend their state's honor … and were too late to do anything except stand around since the Missourians had already got tired of waiting and gone home. Missouri Governor Boggs and Governor Lucas quarreled over where the true border lay. In the end, the U.S. Marshals intervened to keep the peace.
At last in 1849-1850, the US Supreme Court decided to retain the old official Sullivan Line between Iowa and Missouri. Large, cast iron pillars were driven into the ground every ten miles to the Des Moines River to mark the boundary. A few survive today.
No one likes to pay taxes, and early Americans hated the idea with a passion. So when US Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton persuaded Congress to impose a tax on distilled spirits in 1791, he found himself with a rebellion on his hands.
The new federal government needed revenue, not only to run the country, but to pay off debts incurred during the Revolutionary War. Since a national income tax wasn't yet in the cards, Hamilton felt it necessary to levy taxes on goods including a very unpopular "whiskey" tax which frontier farmers in western Pennsylvania felt was unfair. Many of these small scale farmers grew rye and corn. Distilling the grain into whiskey allowed indefinite storage and gave them a more reliable source of income than shipping the harvest east.
The farmers expressed their displeasure by refusing to pay the tax. While US President George Washington sought a peaceful solution and Hamilton urged military force, the farmers continued to ramp up the hostilities in the Whiskey Rebellion.
In 1794, a group of 400 rebels marched on Pittsburgh and burned the home of John Neville, a tax collection supervisor. Washington was left with no choice. Concerned the rebellion might spread to other states and end in the destruction of the federal government, he mustered a sizable militia. Under the command of Hamilton and Henry Lee, governor of Virginia, 13,000 troops marched into western Pennsylvania to put down the rebels.
When Hamilton and Lee's militia reached Pittsburgh, the rebels fled and the Whiskey Rebellion ended. About 150 men suspected of being involved were arrested, but freed for lack of evidence. Two were tried, convicted of treason, and pardoned by Washington.
In 1802, President Thomas Jefferson, who had never agreed with the tax, repealed it.
In 1857-58, the so-called "Mormon problem" caused the conflict known as the Utah War or Buchanan's Blunder, much to the eventual embarrassment of the US President.
The Church of Latter-Day Saints faced a great deal of persecution in the United States. Members were eventually forced to head west to establish a sanctuary in Utah. About 55,000 Mormons occupied the Salt Lake City, and Brigham Young acted as territorial governor. Against federal law, Young governed the territory as a theocracy, allowing church doctrine to take precedence over civil matters.
In the years since the Mormons had settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley, tensions between the church and the US government continued to rise over such issues as polygamy. Matters came to a head when hostilities against three federal judges by members of the church caused them to flee Utah, claiming they'd barely escaped with their lives (an exaggeration).
To deal with the problem, President James Buchanan appointed a new territorial governor and sent him to Utah accompanied by 2,500 U.S. Army troops. The commander of the expedition was given strict instructions not to attack citizens except in self defense. Unfortunately, no one thought to inform the Mormons.
In response to what they believed was an invasion, Utah mustered the militia and began collecting firearms, ammunition, and food stores. Citizen drills were established. A reconnaissance unit sent to infiltrate the US Army camp brought back renewed fears of mass hangings and abuse of Mormon women. The severely outmanned and under supplied Utah government declared martial law and prepared for the worst. Young told militia commanders to avoid bloodshed if possible.
In the meantime, the advance force of 1,250 US Army troops were harassed by the Utah militia and mounted scouts, who did not return fire even when shot at. Their orders were not to engage, but hinder and delay. Despite the reluctance to strike first, injuries and fatalities happened on both sides. Eventually, winter set in, bringing the "war" to a halt.
By spring 1858, Buchanan's requests for further funding for the "Utah Expedition" were ignored by Congress. Mormon sympathies and the slavery debate made the action in Utah unimportant and unpopular. The Army was recalled. For the Mormons, life returned to normal. And while Buchanan's Blunder had the unintended effect of generating sympathy for the Mormons, it also ended Young's control over the Utah territory.
The post 10 Wars Fought In The USA appeared first on Listverse.
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